Solar flares—a sudden eruption of electromagnetic radiation at the Sun—are known to have significant impacts on Earth’s upper atmosphere and ionosphere, but their collective effects on geospace as an integrated system have never been examined.

Previous studies have established the importance of the increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in causing trends in the thermosphere and ionosphere (T-I). Recent work indicates that the changing Earth’s magnetic field is also important.

We conducted observational and modeling studies of thermospheric composition and ionospheric total electron content (TEC) variations during two geomagnetically quiet periods (maximum Kp=1.7) at solar minimum.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration Global-scale observations of the Limb and Disk (GOLD) mission observed a unique structure of thermospheric column density ratio of O to N2 (∑O/N2) during a geomagnetic storm on day of year (DOY) 130 (May 10) to DOY 132 in 2019.

The Global-scale Observation of Limb and Disk (GOLD) mission, for the first time, provides synoptic two-dimensional (2D) maps of OI 135.6 nm observations.

We conducted numerical simulations to examine dayside thermosphere and ionosphere responses to concurrent solar flares and a geomagnetic storm during September 6th – September 11th, 2017, as well as the interplay of flare and storm effects.

The period of September 6 – 11, 2017 was an active period in which multiple solar flares and a major geomagnetic storm occurred. The two largest flares, an X9.3 and an X8.2 flares, were a disk flare and a limb flare, respectively.

We investigate trends and solar irradiance effects in the mesosphere using the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model with eXtended thermosphere and ionosphere (WACCM‐X) and radar measurements of winds at Collm (51°N, 13°E), for the period of 1980–2014.

Solomon & Qian show that solar minima are not all the same, and may have implications for understanding the Sun during the extended periods of very low activity known as “grand minima” that have sometimes occurred in the past, the best known of which was the Maunder Minimum during 1650–1700.

H.Liu et al. have improved a comprehensive numerical model, the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model with thermosphere and ionosphere extension (WACCM-X).